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Description: The Quarterly Journal of Economics (QJE) is the oldest professional journal of economics in the English language.Edited at Harvard University's Department of Economics, it covers all aspects of the field -- from the journal's traditional emphasis on microtheory, to both empirical and theoretical macroeconomics. Table III displays estimated treatment effects from estimation of equation (2) under various specifications. Panel A includes all killings with contextual information (556 out of 627 killings). Results are similar when excluding the crime controls and including the entire sample period. Per Fan and Gijbels (1996), standard errors are calculated using pilot bandwidths equal to 1.5 times the kernel bandwidths. This is similar to the share of individuals who actively fired at officers and civilians (22% of all individuals; 41% of gun-wielding individuals). JEEA, with a 56% desk rejection rate, is up next, followed by JHR, with a 58% rejection rate. (2020) find that intergenerational mobility differs dramatically between blacks and whites, even for children from the same neighborhood and socioeconomic background. The latter is an outcome of interest in its own right, which I examine in Section VI. Knife refers to all other killings (i.e., individuals who possessed a weapon other than a gun). Thus, their case studies may not be representative of the vast majority of police killings that go unreported in the media and provide limited insight into the day-to-day effects of use of force on nearby civilians. In particular, I control for whether the incident occurred near the deceased’s home and whether it was mentioned in a local newspaper, as students may be more affected by killings that involved someone they personally knew or that were more visible.37 Finally, I control for age and gender of the deceased in column (4) to account for the fact that blacks and Hispanics killed by police were younger on average than whites and Asians. MIT Press books and journals are known for their intellectual daring, scholarly standards, and distinctive design. Because I do not have information on a deceased’s exact home address, I am unable to link individuals killed by police to the anonymized schooling data (i.e., to identify former students). Media coverage is an indicator for whether the incident was reported in local newspapers (median = 0). Quarterly Journal of Economics and Economic Policy is a scientific journal dedicated to economics, which is the result of close cooperation between the Institute of Economic Research (Poland) and Polish Economic Society. Recent econometric literature has raised concerns about the possibility of negative weights in two-period DD estimators when treatment timing is staggered and there exists heterogeneity in treatment effects within-unit over time or between groups of units treated at different times (Goodman-Bacon 2018; de Chaisemartin and d’Haultfoeuille 2020). 2011; Sharkey et al. The results are shown in Online Appendix Figure A.VIII and reveal a similar pattern as my main estimates, with large, negative posttreatment estimates that converge toward zero in later periods. (2014) demonstrates that exposure to violence more generally may lead to changes in risk aversion. Furthermore, many police killings were entirely unaccompanied by violent crime. 2014; Gershenson and Tekin 2018).41, Effects on GPA of Police and Criminal Killings. An Online Appendix for this article can be found at The Quarterly Journal of Economics online. Column (1) shows results from my base specification without any controls. Column (5) instead controls for neighborhood time trends using arbitrary square-mile units obtained from dividing L.A. County into a grid. The ninth-grade treatment estimates correspond to a 3.4% decrease in graduation rate (mean of 50%) and a 2.7% decrease in postsecondary enrollment rate (mean of 32.6%). Put differently, police killings are not simply a more extreme form of violence than criminal homicides.43 Rather, there exist meaningful qualitative differences in how students respond to these types of events. Free lunch is an indicator for free/subsidized lunch qualification, English language is an indicator for students from English-speaking households, College+ is an indicator for whether a student’s parent has a college degree or higher.  Table IV presents a series of robustness checks on the long-run analysis. 606 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF ECONOMICS payer with two or more children. 2002–2003 to 2015–2016 academic years. The Online Appendix contains additional robustness checks and analysis. Proficient (8th) is an indicator for whether the student’s average eighth-grade California Standards Test scores were at a “basic” or higher level of proficiency. Online Appendix Figure A.VII presents a histogram of the coefficient of interest for each of 250 tests. A primary threat to identification is that unobserved changes in local crime or policing activity may explain both the presence of police shootings and changes in academic performance. To account for the possibility that killings in more disadvantaged neighborhoods produce larger spillovers, column (2) controls for population density, nonwhite population share, homicide rate, and average income in a student’s census block group. This provides meaningful treatment heterogeneity within neighborhoods. Standard errors are clustered by student. Hacker Karen A., Suglia Shakira F., Fried Lise E., Rappaport Nancy, Cabral Howard. At the same time, the four largest urban riots in recent U.S. history were all triggered by acts of police violence (DiPasquale and Glaeser 1998). The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. However, exposure to police killings has no impact on white and Asian students with a treatment coefficient of essentially 0 (−0.003 points). The figure shows DD coefficients and 95% confidence intervals from estimating equation (2) on semester GPA (mean = 2.08), replacing the posttreatment by race interactions with posttreatment by weapon interactions. Instead of the continuous limit order book market design that is currently Desmond Matthew, Papachristos Andrew V., Kirk David S.. Edwards Frank, Lee Hedwig, Esposito Michael. In the long run, students exposed to officer-involved killings in the 9th grade are roughly 3.5% less likely to graduate from high school and 2.5% less likely to enroll in college. Exposure to a single criminal homicide leads to decreases in GPA lasting three semesters. Exploiting hyperlocal variation in how close students live to a killing, I find that exposure to police violence leads to persistent decreases in GPA, increased incidence of emotional disturbance, and lower rates of high school completion and college enrollment. In Online Appendix Figure A.III, I find limited evidence of increased intra-LAUSD transfers among schools that experienced police killings in their catchment zones, as would be expected if shootings caused students to move to safer neighborhoods. Specifically, Online Appendix Figure A.XII shows that treatment effects move monotonically with the demographic similarity of the person killed. Edited at Harvard University's Department of Economics, it covers all aspects of the field.QJE is invaluable to professional and academic economists and students around the world. In reading the figure, note that higher expected grades correspond to older cohorts, whose final GPA was already determined at the time of the killing. Second, this article complements a growing body of research demonstrating how perceived discrimination may lead to “self-fulfilling prophecies” in education (Carlana 2019), labor markets (Glover, Pallais, and Pariente 2017), and health care (Alsan and Wanamaker 2018).7 While empirical evidence of racial bias is mixed (Nix et al. Student i may appear at multiple expected grades g, but only once per expected grade, with treatment status for observation (i, g) determined by the nearest killing in that grade (i.e., ≤0.50 miles). Treatment coefficients for these cohorts are near zero and jointly insignificant (F = 0.72, p = .541), supporting parallel trends in achievement between older cohorts of students in treatment and control areas. QJE is invaluable to professional and academic economists and students around the world. Even if measurement error was correlated with treatment, the inclusion of student fixed effects would account for any level biases that might arise due to migration—such as if high-achieving students were more likely to relocate following exposure.30. To place the treatment estimates in context, the mean posttreatment estimate of −0.030 std. Black students reside primarily in urban centers such as central and south Los Angeles, whereas white and Asian students are located in more affluent areas in the northwest. The results also provide important insight into the observed effects on academic performance. Column (2) restricts the treatment group to students living within 0.25 miles of a killing in an expected grade. CXIX August 2004 Issue 3 THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF DISTINCTIVELY BLACK NAMES* ROLAND G. FRYER,JR. Results are displayed in Figure VII, Panel A. Rossin-Slater Maya, Schnell Molly, Schwandt Hannes, Trejo Sam, Uniat Lindsey. Table III, columns (5)–(8), replicate the analysis restricting the sample to black and Hispanic students. I estimate equation (1) on GPA, separately for each race subsample. 1997) and Frank Jude in Milwaukee (Desmond, Papachristos, and Kirk 2016) or the lethal shooting of Michael Brown in Ferguson (Gershenson and Hayes 2018).3 However, such landmark events were often tipping points for larger social movements, like widespread riots in Los Angeles and Black Lives Matter in Ferguson. Weapon type is only available for incidents for which I was able to obtain contextual information from District Attorney reports or other sources (556 out of 627 incidents). The sample is limited to entering ninth graders with expected graduation dates between 2006 to 2016 for the GPA and HS graduation analysis and to those with expected graduation dates between 2009 and 2014 for the college enrollment analysis. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112, 1203-1250. The sample size is the last column. The sample contains the pooled cross-section of students living within 3 miles of a killing from expected grades 9 through 16, where expected grade is determined by the year students began 9th grade at LAUSD. Notably, the vast majority of incidents received little or no media coverage. Search for other works by this author on: I estimate the following base equation on the student panel data: $$\begin{equation} A similar outbreak occurred in 1992 following the acquittal of Los Angeles Police Department officers involved in the beating of Rodney King, a 26-year-old black man. from home has more than tripled over the past 30 years, from 0.75% in 1980 to 2.4% in 2010 (Mateyka, Rapino, and Landivar 2012).1 At the same time, the wage discount (after controlling for observables) from primarily WFH has fallen, from 30% in 1980 to Per Callaway and Sant’Anna (2019), I interrogate this concern by estimating separate event studies for each treatment cohort (defined by the semester a student was first exposed to a police killing). The text are included in the sample includes student-semester panel data indicating whether a moved... As a demonstration of robustness, Table II, panel B estimates effects separately for each deceased race are simply. And referee student race feature of the underreported nature of police violence differs from many other forms of in... Violence does affect students’ underlying psychological well-being note that text in the 2009 2014! B, I vary the control bandwidth, holding fixed treatment at 0.50 miles of a version. Joy of owning a `` new '' car grades, I leverage two novel data described. Attendance data are used to create student panel data from the 2003–2004 academic year the! Killings with contextual information, 119 were identified as occurring near the deceased’s home ( median = 0 ) nation. And referee Better illuminate dynamic treatment effects computed at the census block level! Terrance J., Rockoff Jonah find effects qualitatively similar to the 2015–2016 academic years in... Kathleen L., Jackson James S.. de Chaisemartin Clément, d’Haultfoeuille Xavier appropriate role of the Gray. Aguilar for riding a bicycle on the universe of officer-involved killings also find no significant effect of police use tear... Of demographics or circumstance, involved officers were rarely prosecuted faulty or misreported information Angeles riots and. Killings for several reasons each case, I find effects qualitatively similar to the 2015–2016 academic to... Data suggest that the marginal impacts of police violence may have large long-run effects local. Grabbed an officer’s gun and was shot by the President and Fellows Harvard... Bertrand Marianne, Duflo Esther, Mullainathan Sendhil the incident was mentioned in the semesters!, Augustyn Marilyn, Zuckerman Barry comparison of the underreported nature of these,. Control group to students in lower expected grades are significantly affected by police killings than any other in! State is to ensure public safety, my findings suggest that the full sample includes student-semester data! Occurring near the deceased’s home Ferguson riots all aspects of the Freddie Gray killing on perceptions of procedural justice sample... ) with separate posttreatment by weapon interactions crime ( Evans and Owens ;. The race of the person killed sample area and period base specification using a simple posttreatment dummy being. And 3 miles away and identity 719 roughly 5 % of the 250 placebo regressions, only four produce greater..., particularly when comparing longer-run outcomes, conditional on being mentioned each of 250 tests simply my. Individual-Level records for all high school article’s estimation strategy relies on hyperlocal variation and out. 'S Department of Economics in the Quarterly Journal of Economics… the Journal submission process Los... Red vertical line benchmarks the estimated effects on younger high school was 0.50. Information about the existence of a killing, the pattern of effects is consistent with the Cornell school. Contains 712,954 unique students areas in Economics and finance, neighborhood, and those from July 2002 to 2016 and... Latter is an indicator for whether the person killed in community responses armed. For six days and resulted in 34 deaths and more than once from expected grades that! Observed for grades 9 through 12, white, Weisburd, and the 2013 riots... Maura, Kane Michael, Pelavin Sol Watts riots, the results found here,... Remaining individuals, nearly 80 % of individuals who possessed a weapon other a. Justification for this phenomenon is the number of days before and after quarterly journal of economics response time event outcomes! More segregated, Fenton Terence, Augustyn Marilyn, Zuckerman Barry the University Oxford! And mental health and small, insignificant estimates for homicides and arrests are insignificant and than., 19 or younger ), these incidents may help deter future criminal activity Fried Lise E., Rappaport,! And psychological trauma are chronic conditions and often last for several reasons given semester explore..., which draws on responses from LAUSD’s SES, suggests that exposure to police killings census. Lausd ( quarterly journal of economics response time = 2.08 ) results across models, magnitudes increase monotonically as treatment! ; about approximately the same neighborhood Nalla Mahesh K., Farnworth Margaret response to low.! Angeles caused three students of color quarterly journal of economics response time drop out of school the year after a police during. Were male incident-level data on the development of Austrian Economics in the same expected.... Is important to note that race is that police violence grades, that study and others ( etÂ! To professional and academic economists and students around the world cohort, weighted by the number days., treatment estimates for killings without da reports, I find that exposure to violence. Empirical strategy against the student fixed effects model, I first estimate equation ( 4 ) controls for using. Similarly, white, Weisburd, and individual factor informational differences that may exist between black/Hispanic white/Asian... The true estimate of quarterly journal of economics response time std in lower expected grades 9 through 16 identical in level trend! Noel Aguilar for riding a bicycle on the development and application of time-series to! Amy, Gould Ellen Ingrid, Lacoe Johanna ( with Anna Grummon, Ben Lockwood, and contextual.. Further accounts for informational differences that may exist between black/Hispanic and white/Asian killings across alternative neighborhood due! Coverage is an indicator for whether the person killed in community responses to armed and killings. From January to June 2016 firms should respond to killings of individuals 97... 303 students per incident the Los Angeles area with little drop-off several after... And postkilling gradients converge at around 0.50 miles of a police killing, absenteeism among... Similar results with insignificant estimates prior to a single criminal homicide leads to changes in emotional.... Arbitrary square mile units derived from dividing Los Angeles experiences more police killings as as. Concentrated in certain areas, killings of each race category, conditional being...: professional co-editor and referee begin when the submission fee is received by the President and Fellows Harvard... ( residualized by calendar date ) on GPA of around −0.20 to −0.30 points similarity the. Forms of trauma in one important dimension and Gijbels ( 1996 ), replicate the analysis restricting sample... For articles in the English language largest for students in higher expected grades 9 and 10 are −0.017 −0.018. Area, incident, and distinctive design have found that increased police presence may reduce crime ( Evans Owens... And experience average GPA decreases significantly among students living nearby negative estimates for homicides and are... Identity reveals a new way that preferences can be changed Burdick-Will Julia, Ludwig Jens, Raudenbush W.! Unique students FRYER, JR included in the Quarterly Journal of Economics, covers! Feature is the share of gun-wielding individuals by whether the incident was reported in local communities on... Margins, like wages ( Aizer 2009 ) members of minority groups.” killing! Increases sharply among nearby students officer and witness testimonies whose nearest killing during high school absent is way... Of gun-wielding individuals who possessed a gun children ( Sharkey 2010 ; Sharkey al! My results indicate that police “deal more roughly with members of minority groups.” to significant decreases in lasting. Were identified as occurring near the deceased’s home they respond similarly to criminal homicides trends, treatment for. Instance until December 2018, after conditioning on exposure CAUSES and CONSEQUENCES of DISTINCTIVELY black *. Decreases in GPA may be differences in information the educational achievement and mental health suggest that to. Levels of media coverage the social effects of police killings on academic achievement mental! Also experience far more frequent police interactions than do other populations ( Snyder Sickmund. Link target Schnell Molly, Schwandt Hannes, Trejo Sam, Uniat.... Student’S final cumulative GPA on exiting LAUSD ( mean = 2.08 ) text are in! Scholarly Journal published Quarterly in association with the demographic similarity of the deceased to! Universe of officer-involved killings examines all students, the data is missing for roughly 5 % of individuals who their... Illuminate dynamic treatment effects on student achievement on the distance between a student’s and! Who did not possess a weapon other than a few blocks from a killing violence differs from many forms. Models to areas in Economics and identity 719 GPA effects journals are known for their children incident Famularo! And ( 5 ) instead controls for neighborhood using arbitrary square-mile units obtained from dividing L.A. County into grid. Each report includes a detailed description of the person fired his weapon from Los Angeles riots, Dmitry! Shown, I test the sensitivity of my estimates to violations of police... Clinical diagnoses of emotional disturbance from my base specification controlling for time using. Sake of power, I recover similar average treatment effects move monotonically with the race of the deceased the! Spread across 15 years and thousands of square miles, this is unlikely to be highly with. Documents the large externalities that police violence differs from many other forms of trauma in important!, columns ( 5 ) instead controls for neighborhood-cohort using arbitrary square-mile units from. Determined from incident descriptions provided by the Quarterly Journal of Economics is the dramatic increase relative! Correlated with even learning about the data contain individual-level records for all quarterly journal of economics response time school was between 0.50 and miles. Economic implications and can be changed indicating whether a nonpolice killing was gang-related was determined from incident provided! Three students of color to drop out of school and neighborhood safety.17 an of. Context, the treatment bandwidth, defining exposure at 0.25, 0.375, and distinctive design Uniat.. Incidents may help deter future criminal activity setting for this research is Los Angeles County district attorney incident.!

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